Activist court - Court that makes decisions that forge new ground such as Roe v Wade or Brown v Board of Education and establish precedent that often result in some form of legislative action.

Appropriation bill - Congressional legislation that has spending as a basic characteristic. There are 13 appropriation bills that make up the federal budget.

Articles of Confederation - The first adopted written constitution of the newly independent United States. Because of its weaknesses, the period of time (1781-1789) became known as the critical period.

Balanced budget - Public policy that advocates that the federal budget spend as much money as it receives. Attempt made to pass a constitutional amendment mandating this policy failed.

Bill of Rights - Adopted in 1791 by the states two years after the ratification of the Constitution, it established the bases of civil liberties for Americans.

Business Cycle - A recurring cycle of economic activity, such as a contraction of economic measure, followed by a recession, followed by recovery and positive growth. Business cycles occur over periods of several years.

Bipartisan - Refers to two political parties working together to reach a common policy goal.

Bully pulpit - The ability to use the office of the presidency to promote a particular program and/or to influence Congress to accept legislative proposals.

Cabinet - Part of the “unwritten Constitution,” it was first established by George Washington and includes federal departments such as state, defense, etc.

Campaign finance reform - Legislation aimed at placing limits on political candidates accepting money and gifts from individuals and special interest groups.

Caucus - Party regulars meeting in small groups asking questions, discussing qualifications regarding the candidate, and voting on whether to endorse a particular candidate. The Iowa caucus has taken on almost as much importance as the New Hampshire primary because of it timing.

Census - Official count of the population of a district, state, or nation, which includes recording of statistics such as age, sex, occupation, and property ownership.

Checks and balances - A key aspect of the Constitution of the United States protecting the balance of power among the three branches of government. The concept was first promoted by James Madison in the Federalist Papers.

Chief executive - Used to describe the president. Powers found in Article II of the Constitution.

Concurring opinion - Additional opinion in a Court decision written by a member of the majority.

Congressional Budget Office (CBO) - Set up by the Congress, this office evaluates the cost of legislative proposals.

Conservative - A person who believes in less government, lower taxes, a strong national defense, and more responsibility.

Constitution - Provides the basic framework of government. It is the supreme law of the land.

Consumer Price Index (CPI) - A primary measure of inflation determined by the increase in the cost of products compared to a base year.

Council of Economic Advisors - White House staff agency created to give the president advice regarding economic and fiscal policy.

Declaration of Independence - Blueprint for the American Revolution containing three parts. The first part-an introduction including ideas such as natural rights as related to life, liberty and property, the consent of the governed and the concept of limited government. The second part-a list of grievances against the King of England and the third part-a declaration of independence.

Deficit spending - The government’s meeting budgetary expenses by borrowing more money than it can pay back.

Demographics - Characteristics of a population, including age, sex, and race. Demographics are often used to determine changes in the make-up of a population.

Discount rates - Interest levels established by the Federal Reserve that affect the ability of the consumer to borrow money. Raising and lowering rates is used as a tool to combat inflation.

Discretionary Income - The money households have left over after paying fixed costs such as mortage/rent, food shopping, and utilities. Th extra money can be used (or saved) in whatever manner a person or household wants since it is not needed for any mandatory payments.

Dissenting opinion - Discretionary Spending - Those appropriation items in the budget that are not mandatory. In the federal budget, discretionary spending consists of measures in the 13 appropriation bills that must be passed by Congress by October 1 in such categories as transportation, agriculture, and education.

Dissenting opinion - Judicial written opinion that is contrary to the ruling of the full court.

Electoral college - Consists of presidential electors from each state. The number of electors is based on the state’s population. The states with the greatest population have the most electoral votes. When the voter casts a vote for president, in reality the vote goes to one of the presidential electors designated by the candidate in the state. The number of electors for each state equals the number of senators and representatives that state has in Congress. The candidate with a majority of the electoral votes is elected to office. If no candidate receives a majority, the House of Representatives will determine the outcome of the election.

Entitlements - Those benefits guaranteed by law paid to individuals by the federal government, such as Social Security.

Executive order - Order signed by the president that has the effect of law, even though it is not passed by Congress. An example of an executive order includes President Clinton’s order legalizing the abortion pill, RU486.

Favorable balance of trade - Refers to a country exporting more than they import. The United States has had an unfavorable balance of trade since World War II.

Federal Reserve System - Federal body that regulates the money supply by controlling open-market operations; buying and selling of government securities; and establishing reserve requirements, the legal limitations on money reserves that banks must keep against the amount of money they have deposited in Federal Reserve Banks and through discount rates, and the rate at which banks can borrow money from the Federal Reserve System.

Filibuster - Tactic used in the Senate whereby a vote on legislation can be delayed through debate. The longest continuous filibuster was made by Strom Thurmond and lasted 24 hours.

Fiscal policy - Policy that determines how the economy is managed as a result of government spending and borrowing and the amount of money collected from taxes.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - Currently the key economic measure that analyzes an upward or downward economic trend of the monetary value of all the goods and services produced within the nation on a quarterly basis.

Gross National Product (GNP) - The total of all goods and services produced in a year.

Incumbents - Those elected officials who are running for new terms of office.

Inflation - Economic situation characterized by steadily rising prices and falling purchasing power. It is, in part, caused by wage rates increasing faster than productivity.

Judiciary committee - Key Senate committee that is responsible for recommending presidential judicial appointments to the full Senate for approval.

Laissez-faire - French term literally meaning “hand off.” Used to describe and economic philosophy of nongovernment intervention in economic matters such as regulation of business or establishing tariffs.

Lame Duck - An officeholder who is either defeated or is retiring from the office in which he is serving, but is still in office until his successor is sworn in; perceived to have little power or influence.

Liberal - A person who believes in greater government intervention, higher taxes, and a smaller military.

Lobbyists - The primary instruments of fostering a special interest group’s goals to the policymakers. The term comes from people who literally wait in the lobbies of legislative bodies for senators and representatives to go to and from the floor of the legislatures.

Majority leader - Persons selected by the political party holding a majority of the seats in the House and Senate.

Majority opinion - Court ruling participated in by the majority of justices hearing a case.

Minority leader - Persons selected by the political party holding a minority of the seats in the House and Senate.

Monetary policy - Policies developed by the Federal Reserve Board, such as raising or lowering interest rates, aimed at creating and maintaining a healthy economy.

National Security Council - Chaired by the president, it is the lead advisory board in the area of national and international security. The other members of the council include the vice president, secretaries of state and defense, director of the Central Intelligence Agency, and chair of the joint chiefs of staff.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB) - Its director, appointed with the consent of the Senate, is responsible for the preparation of the massive federal budget, which must be submitted to the Congress in January each year. Besides formulating the budget, the OMB oversees congressional appropriations.

Pocket veto - Rejection of legislation that occurs if the president does not sign a bill within 10 days and the Congress also adjourns within the same time period.

Pork barrel legislation - The practice of legislators obtaining funds through legislation that favors their home districts.

President pro tempore - Temporary presiding officer of the Senate.

Progressive tax - A tax based upon the amount of money an individual earned, such as an income tax. Became legal as a result of the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution.

Redistricting - Process that takes place every ten years, as a result of the federal census, mandating state legislatures to redraw their congressional

Regressive tax - A tax that is imposed on individuals regardless of how much they earn, such as a sales tax.

Sampling error - Refers to a statistical error, usually within three percentage points, inherent in the polling process.

Senate confirmation - The process outlined in Article Two of the Constitution, giving the Senate the authority to approve appointments made by the president.

Speaker of the House - The representative from the majority party in the House of Representatives who sets the House agenda, presides over House meetings, recognize speakers, refers bills to committees, answers procedural questions, and declares the outcome of votes.

State of the Union Address - Constitutional requirement imposed on the president to deliver an annual report regarding the current state of the nation to Congress. Traditionally, the president delivers the State of the Union Address every January, in the form of a speech before a joint session of Congress.

Veto - Power of the president to prevent enactment of legislation passed by Congress. A two-thirds majority vote of each house is required to override a presidential veto.